Islam and Medieval Europe: A Perfect Fusion

Europe, which witnessed the glory and spectacle of the Greek and Roman civilizations since time immemorial, was drenched in barbaric atrocities, religious intolerance and a socio-politico and economic quagmire when an infant Islamic Empire by the name of Umayyad was spreading tentacles in the Arabian Peninsula during 8^th century (Yahya) n.d.).  The younger civilization had much of the fresh blood, springing from the divine Quranic teachings and the Prophet Muhammad’s traditions of justice and social equity, to invigorate the veins of once thriving but then stagnant vast lands of Europe (Farmer 1988).  History provides the testimony of this infusion to take place and today the world in general and the Medieval Europe in particular owes much of the credit for its Renaissance movement and its ultimate transformation into modern Europe to the Moorish rule and its advancements in the fields of literature, philosophy and science and technology (The New Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.).

There were traces of minor interactions between traders from these two distinct parts of the world before the exchange of deadly conquests which fused the dominance of Muslim Arabia over the Christian Europe through Iberian Peninsula.  Andalusia, the territory which circumscribes modern Spain, became a mark of splendor and majesty in Europe and its Capital, Cordoba became an icon of world class education, culture, architecture and social harmony.     The major impact on Andalusia came from Islamic teachings which favored social equality regardless of religious, ethnic and cultural differences. Secondly, Greek philosophy and mainly the works of Aristotle were developed and retranslated into Latin in the Islamic universities, which expedited the process of rediscovery in Europe (Grant 2001).  Translation of thousands of manuscripts at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad and Cordoba Library which brimmed with six hundred thousand books sparkled as the beacon of light and illuminated the fields of art, architecture, agriculture, astronomy, geography, music, medicine, mathematics and language (Burnett 2001).

A brief finding of the translations of different manuscripts is as under and it suggests how Muslim discoveries in different disciplines helped Europe to awaken from the drudgery of barbarianism, intolerance and ignorance (Nasr n.d.). 

The translation of Algebra and algorism with Indian-Arabic numerals was developed by the Persian Mathematician al-Khwarizmi, and introduced in Europe by Robert Chester and Leonardo Fibonacci during 12^th century (Katz n.d.).Ibn al-Haytham compiled thesis on optical sciences, which were used as references by Newton and Descartes in the later centuries.  The alchemical works of Muhammad ibn Zakariya Razi were also translated into Latin around the same era. Medical sciences were also highly developed in Islam as testified by the Crusaders, who relied on Arab doctors on numerous occasions (National Library of Medicine digital archives n.d.).One of the most important medical works to be translated was Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine during 11^th century, which was translated into Latin and then disseminated in manuscript and printed form throughout Europe.  It remained a standard medical textbook in Europe until the early modern period (National Library of Medicine digital archives n.d.).

In the field of agriculture, Arabs brought an Agricultural Revolution in Europe where farming was restricted to wheat grains; scientific discoveries led the cultivation of numerous other crops including sorghum from Africa, citrus fruits from China, and crops from India such as mangos, rice, cotton and sugar cane (Decker (2009)).  These changes in agricultural production coupled with increased mechanization of agriculture, led to major changes in economy, population distribution, and income levels. Also transmitted via Muslim influence, a silk industry flourished, flax was cultivated and linen exported, and esparto grass, which grew wild in the more arid parts, was collected and turned into various articles("The Sugar Cane Industry: An Historical Geography from Its Origins to 1914 " (1989)).

The marks left on architecture by the Muslims are more vivid and portrayed the zenith of aesthetics and purity of art (Lockard n.d.), and (Qantara 2008).  Where the mansions of Andalusia were sprawled by fragrant gardens, fresh flowing ponds, finely crafted arched-doorways and generously open yards, construction in Paris was restricted to conservative form of architecture focusing narrow entrances, empty spaces and small structures(Cardin 2001).

The smooth transition of merger of two distinct societal groupings and the consequent transmission of knowledge is rooted well within the Islamic teachings of equality and fair play without any prejudice to caste, religion or ethnicity (Chittick 1998).  But the confluence of Arab and Europe was mediated and facilitated by the Sufi Saints, the role of whom is often undermined by the scientific discoveries and headways in arts and architecture of that time (Ahmad 1997).  Nevertheless, their stature stands tall for the noble and selfless efforts of striking a balance between societies which at one end were engaged in crusades and on the other hand mutually depended on each other in cultural advances through learning and development (Fierro 1992).  The role of Sufi scholars such as Ibn Massarah, Ibn Rushd and Ghazali primarily focused on adorning Greek philosophy (Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West 2008) with Islamic concept of spirituality which fascinated the men of learning in Europe and rejuvenated their senses towards the outlook of life and romanticized their understanding on religion and self-discovery based on purified form of love which branched from meditation and intuition(Austin 1971) and , (Mackeen 1971).

Unfortunately, due to the bloody conquests of power struggles and the crusades aimed at suzerainty of the holy lands, the pristine and powerful impact of fusion of two mammoth civilizations is generally not appreciated, even so that efforts of Muslims for the regeneration of European society is almost discarded (O'Neill 2009).  Rather, ulterior agendas are fulfilled by distorting facts and fuelling disharmony.  But if rightly understood, the annals of history of medieval Europe are there to provide a lesson which can pave a way to inter-faith dialogue emulating a peaceful co-existence of distinct religious and cultural groups (Effect of Crusades n.d.).

An Introduction To Early Islamic Philosophy

In Islam there is a cosmic book to be read and deciphered. So Muslims considered it a religious duty to investigate and explore ancient wisdom to quench their thrust for knowledge and to better understand this universe. That is why Islamic intellectual history is rich with names who have ruled the western philosophy and science for centuries. Muslims intlectuals have contributed a lot to the world wisdom.  Here I give an outline of the Islamic philosophy.

Mu’tazilism, Ash’arism and Tahawism:

Mu’tazilites, known as ‘People Of Unity And Justice’, were the pure rationalists in early Islam. By Justice they imply that it is incumbent on God to requite the obedient for their good deeds and punish the sinners for their misdeeds. By Unity they imply that attributes of God are not separate from the divine essence. Wasil bin Ata (699-748) was the founder of this school of thought. Abul-al-Hudhail Allif, Al-Jahiz , al-Mu’tamir and al-Jubai are the prominent names of Mu’tazilism.

Ash’arites maintain an intermediary position between Mu’tazilites who made reason in preference to revelation the only criterion of truth and reality, and the Zahirites who were totally against the reason or ‘Kalam’ in explaining religious dogmas.  Ash’arism was an attepmt to not only to purge Islam of all non-Islamic elements but also to harmonize the religious consciousness with the religious thought of Islam. Ash’arites laid down the foundations of Orthodox Kalam. Ali Bin Ismail al-Ashari (death 945) founded this school at the age of 40. Other prominent names include al-Juwaini ,al-Ghazali and  Ibn Tumarat .

Abu Ja’far Ahmed Bin Muahammad al-Tahawi (Born in 834 AD) laid down the foundation of this traditionalist school of thought. He gave the definition of Muslims as: “who follow Qiblah so as long as they acknowledge what prophet Muhammad (PBUH) brought with him and believe in what he said and what he narrated.

Shihab al-Din Suharwardi Maqtul and Ibn Arabi:

Born in 1153 A.D, Shihab al-Din Suharwardi‘s Ishraqi wisdom has played a great role in intellectual and spiritual life of Islam. His school identifies philosophy with wisdom rather than with rational systemization. According to him Islam unified the wisdom of all previous religions (Hikmat al-Ishraq). He classified the various faculties of soul as vegetative soul (attraction, retention etc) and animal soul (power of lust and anger). His famous works are Hikmat al-Ishraq, Muqawamat  and Talwihat.

Sheikh Muhayi al-Din ibn al-Arabi (born in 1165) is the most influential thinker and mystic in the Sufi world both in the east and the west. He tried to reconcile the pantheistic theory of nature and monotheistic doctrine od Islam. He explained Quranic text and prophetic traditions mystically in his Futuhat and Fusus. His mystical philosophy represents the union of thought and emotion in a highest degree, a curious blend of reasoned truths and intuitive knowledge.

Al-Kindi , Al-Razi and  Al-Farabi : Abu Yousaf Ya’qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi or Alkindus (born in 805) is the first Muslim philosopher by the very definition of philosopher in the modern world; he is called ‘the philosopher of the Arabs’. He conciliated the Hellenistic heritage with Islam. He specialized in almost all the sciences of his times. He insisted that theology is part of philosophy and prophet’s revelations and philosophical truths are in accord with each other so pursuit of theology is logically ordained. His clarified the meanings of ‘Intellect’ and ‘Soul’ and his treatises on such philosophical problems played an important role in medieval philosophy, both eastern and western.

Al-Razi (Rhazes) is a pure rationalist. He believed in reason and reason alone. In clinical studies he revealed a very solid method of investigation based on observation and experimentation. He believed in eternity of soul and matter both. He maintained that life flows from God as light flows from the sun. He also believed in the eternity of time. He believed in God the Wise, in man, in progress, but in no religion whatever.

Al-Farabi or Alpharabius (C.870-950) maintains that it is imperative for great philosophers to be in accord, he believes only in one school of philosophy, the school of truth. He made attempts to revise the Peripatetic philosophy and Platonic tradition. He philosophizes the religion. He gave Theory of the Ten Intelligences (an explanation of Heavens and the earth) and Theory of the Intellect (dealing with psychology). His ideas are amazingly similar to those of Freud, Horney and Murray.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna):

Ibn Sina, known as Aristotle of Islamic world, is the foremost philosopher in the Medieval Hellenistic Islamic tradition. His philosophical theory is a comprehensive, detailed and rationalistic account of the nature of God and Being, in which he finds a systematic place for the corporeal world, spirit, insight, and the varieties of logical thought including dialectic, rhetoric and poetry.

He insisted that reason can allow progress through various levels of understanding and can finally lead to God, the ultimate truth. He stresses the importance of gaining knowledge, and develops a theory of knowledge based on four faculties: sense perception, retention, imagination and estimation. In metaphysics, Ibn Sina makes a distinction between essence and existence; essence considers only the nature of things, and should be considered apart from their mental and physical realization. This distinction applies to all things except God, whom Ibn Sina identifies as the first cause and therefore both essence and existence. He also argued that the soul is incorporeal and cannot be destroyed.

Al-Ghazali (Algazel) :

Al-Ghazâlî (c.1055–1111) is one of the most prominent and influential philosophers, theologians, jurists, and mystics of Islam. Al-Ghazâlî understood the importance of falsafa (Aristotelian philosophy) and developed a complex response that rejected and condemned some of its teachings, while it also allowed him to accept and apply others. Al-Ghazâlî's critique of twenty positions of falsafa in his Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahâfut al-falâsifa) is a significant landmark in the history of philosophy as it advances the nominalist critique of Aristotelian science developed later in 14th century Europe. On the Arabic and Muslim side al-Ghazâlî's acceptance of demonstration led to a much more refined and precise discourse on epistemology and a flowering of Aristotelian logics and metaphysics. With al-Ghazâlî begins the successful introduction of Aristotelianism or rather Avicennism into Muslim theology. Al-Ghazâlî's approach to resolving apparent contradictions between reason and revelation was accepted by almost all later Muslim theologians and had, via the works of Averroes (Ibn Rushd, 1126–98) and Jewish authors a significant influence on Latin medieval thinking.

Ibn Rushd (Averroes):

Abul Walid Muhammad Ibn Ahmed Ibn Muhammad Ibn Rushd(C.1126 to 1198) insisited that Quran exhorts man to study philosophy since he must speculate on the universe to better understand it. The proof of creation (Cosmological) and the proof of Providence (teleological) are mentioned in Quran which lead to the way of God. He rejected the Idealism of Plato and believed that the universe exists in realty. He severly criticized al-Ghazali for his Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahâfut al-falâsifa). He is commentator of Aristotle and his interpretations ruled Europe for centuries.

Ibn Rushd was the last of early great Muslim philosophers.  

Note:  This introduction is based on the following source:

Sharif, M.M.(Ed.). (Reprinted 2007). A History Of Muslim Philosophy. Vol. 1. Karachi: Royal Book Company.